Kebuluran Bengal 1943

Kebuluran Bengal 1943 (Bengali: pañcāśēra manvantara) merupakan suatu bencana utama di wilayah Benggala^[A] dalam India semasa Perang Dunia Kedua. Dianggarkan sebanyak 2.1–3 juta,^[B] daripada 60.3 juta penduduk kawasan tersebut mati akibat kelaparan, malaria dan penyakit teruk lain akibat kekurangan gizi, pemindahan penduduk, keadaan yang tidak bersih dan kekurangan penjagaan kesihatan. Jutaan penduduk jatuh miskin aikbat krisis yang menjejaskan lapisan masyarakat dan ekonomi kawasan tersebut dengan besarnya. Sejarawan telah sering menggambarkan bencana ini sebagai hasil "buatan manusia",^[C] menegaskan bahwa dasar-dasar kolonial menyukarkan lagi krisis ini. Ada pula suatu kelompok minoriti yang melihat bencana ini lebih berpunca daripada faktor penyebab semulajadi.^[D]

Faktor penting

Geologi

Perang

Dasar-dasar yang menghalang pengagihan

Kesan

Kebuluran ini mempercepatkan jalan sosioekonomi yang membawa kepada kemiskinan dan ketidaksamaan pendapatan,^[10]merosakkan ekonomi dan struktur sosial Bengal serta menghancurkan jutaan keluarga.^[11] Krisis ini menjejaskan kesemua lapisan ekonomi masyarakat. Punca utama meluasnya penderitaan ini ialah pemakaian strategi menjual aset demi mendapatkan makanan secara besar-besaran. Sebanyak hampir 1.6 juta keluarga—kira-kira satu suku daripadanya pekebun kecil—cuba menyelamatkan diri dengan menjual atau menggadaikan sawah mereka, secara langsungnya menjatuhkan status mereka dari pemilik tanah kepada buruh.^[12] Pemindahan tanah meningkat sebanyak dengan 504%, 665%, 1,057% dan 872% pada empat tahun berikutan 1941.

Catatan kaki

^ The area now constitutes part of Bangladesh and the Indian states of West Bengal and Tripura. The famine also affected the neighbouring province of Orissa, albeit to a far smaller degree.^[1] Orissa was hit by a cyclone on 10 April 1943.^[2]
^ The estimates do not include Orissa. There has been a wide range of estimates since the famine. The range of 2.1–3 million is taken from a table in Devereux (2000, p. 6). Devereux derived the lower figure from Dyson & Maharatna (1991) and the upper from Amartya Sen's "widely quoted figure of 3 million".^[3] Sen estimated between 2.7 and 3 million deaths for the period 1943–1946.^[4]
Cormac Ó Gráda (2007): "[E]stimates of mortality in Bengal range from 0.8 million to 3.8 million; today the scholarly consensus is about 2.1 million (Hall-Matthews 2005; Sen 1981; Maharatna 1996)."^[5]
Vasant Kaiwar (2017): "The Bengal Famine of 1943 took anywhere from 1 million to 3.8 million starvation victims ..."^[6]
Paul R. Greenough (1982) suggested there had been 3,685,140 (3.7 million) deaths in Bengal in 1943, based on data from the Indian Statistical Institute. That, minus a normal mortality figure of 1.7 million based on 1941–1942 data, gave him the figure of 2 famine-related million deaths in 1943, 800,000 more than Sen had calculated for 1943. Adding 800,000 to Sen's figure of 2.7 to 3 million for 1943–1946 produces a total of 3.5 to 3.8 million famine-related deaths.^[7]

Contemporaneous estimates included, in 1945, that of the Famine Inquiry Commission—appointed in 1944 by the government of India and chaired by Sir John Woodhead, governor of Bengal—of around 1.5 million famine-related deaths out of Bengal's population of 60.3 million.^[8] That figure covered January 1943 to June 1944.^[9] K. P. Chattopadhyay, a University of Calcutta anthropologist, estimated in 1944 that 3.5 million famine-related deaths had occurred in 1943; this was widely believed at the time, but subsequently rejected by many scholars as too high (Greenough 1982, halaman 300–301; Dyson and Maharatna 1991, halaman 281Templat:Incomplete short citation). In 1946 Chattopadhyay estimated that 2.7 million had died in 1943 and the first half of 1944.^[6] See Maharatna (1996, pp. 214–231), especially table 5.1 on page 215, for a review of the data.
^ Noted in several sources (e.g., Arnold 1991, halaman 97–98). According to Greenough (1980, p. 234) this explanation is conventional wisdom in Bengal itself. The classic academic version of this argument, in A. Sen (1976) and A. Sen (1981a), has become generally accepted (Ó Gráda 2015, p. 90). For a less technical and more elaborated discussion, see either Hungry Bengal by historian Janam Mukherjee (J. Mukherjee 2015) or the considerably more nationalist Churchill's Secret War by journalist Madhusree Mukerjee (Mukerjee 2010).
^ See especially Bowbrick (1986) and Tauger (2003).

Rujukan

Nota

^ Famine Inquiry Commission 1945a, m/s. 1, 144–45; Maharatna 1992, m/s. 320–33.
^ Pati 1999.
^ Devereux 2000, m/s. 5.
^ A. Sen 1980, halaman 202; A. Sen 1981a, halaman 201.
^ Ó Gráda 2007, m/s. 19. sfn error: no target: CITEREFÓ_Gráda2007 (help)
^ ^a ^b Kaiwar 2017, m/s. 90–91. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKaiwar2017 (help)
^ Greenough 1982, m/s. 299–309.
^ Famine Inquiry Commission 1945a, m/s. 109–110.
^ Greenough 1982, m/s. 300.
^ Mahalanobis, Mukherjea & Ghosh 1946.
^ Greenough 1982.
^ Mahalanobis, Mukherjea & Ghosh 1946, m/s. 339 and 365.

Bibliografi

. "Famine in the twentieth century". Institute of Development Studies.
Famine Inquiry Commission (May 1945). Report on Bengal (PDF). New Delhi: Manager of Publications, Government of India Press.
Greenough, Paul R. (1982). Prosperity and Misery in Modern Bengal: The Famine of 1943–1944. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-503082-2.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
Mahalanobis, P. C.; Mukherjea, R.K.; Ghosh, A (1946). "A sample survey of after effects of Bengal famine of 1943". Sankhya. 7 (4): 337–400.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
Pati, Biswamoy (1999). "The Dialectics of Retreat: Orissa, 1943–1950". Social Scientist. 27 (7/8): 75–112. doi:10.2307/3518014. JSTOR 3518014.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
Sen, Amartya (1980). "Famine Mortality: A Study of the Bengal Famine of 1943". Dalam Eric J. Hobsbawm (penyunting). Peasants in History: Essays in Honour of Daniel Thorner. Published for Sameeksha Trust by Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195612159.

Bacaan lanjut

Abdullah, Abu Ahmed (Autumn 1980). "The Peasant Economy in Transition : The Rise of the Rich Peasant in Permanently Settled Bengal". The Bangladesh Development Studies. 8 (4): 1–20. JSTOR 40794299.
Bose, Sugata (1982a). Agrarian Bengal: Economy, Social Structure and Politics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521304481.
Famine Inquiry Commission (Ogos1945). Final Report (pdf). Madras: Government of India Press. Check date values in: |year= (bantuan)
Goswami, Omkar (1990). "The Bengal Famine of 1943: Re-examining the Data". The Indian Economic and Social History Review. 27 (4): 445–463. doi:10.1177/001946469002700403.
Government of Bengal (1940a). Report of the Land Revenue Commission, Vol. I. With Minutes of Dissent. Alipore: Bengal Government Press.
Government of Bengal (1940c). Report of the Land Revenue Commission, Vol. VI (PDF). Replies to the Commission's questionnaire by the Associations concerned with tenants, Bar Associations, etc., and their oral evidence. Alipore: Bengal Government Press.
Passmore, R. (1951). "Famine in India: an historical survey". The Lancet. 258 (6677): 303–307. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(51)93295-3.
Tauger, Mark B.; Sen, Amartya (24 Mac 2011). "The Truth About the Bengal Famine". The New York Review of Books.
Tauger, Mark B.; Sen, Amartya (12 Mei2011). "The Bengal Famine". The New York Review of Books. Check date values in: |date= (bantuan)

Pautan luar

Hungry Bengal – War, Famine, Riots, and the End of Empire 1939–1946

Perang Dunia Kedua

Eropah
- Barat
- Timur
Mediterranean dan Timur Tengah
- Timur Tengah
Asia dan Pasifik
- Tenggara
- Barat Daya
Afrika Barat
Afrika Timur
Atlantik
Amerika Utara
Amerika Selatan

Kasualti
Pembabitan tentera
Persidangan
Komander

Pihak Terbabit

Sekutu (pemimpin)	Afrika Selatan Amerika Syarikat Puerto Rico Australia Belanda Belgium Brazil China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia (Komanwel) Finland (1944–45) India Itali (dari September 1943) Kempen Kanada Kesatuan Soviet Luxembourg Mexico New Zealand Norway Perancis Poland United Kingdom Yunani Yugoslavia
Paksi dan rakan (pemimpin)	Bulgaria Republik China Nanjing Negara Bebas Croatia Finland Jerman Hungary Free India Iraq Itali (sehingga September 1943) Republik Sosial Itali Jepun Manchukuo Filipina (Republik Kedua) Romania Slovakia Thailand Vichy Perancis
Penentangan	Albania Austria Belanda Belgium Negeri Czech Denmark Estonia Filipina Habsyah Hong Kong India Itali Jerman Kesatuan Soviet Korea Latvia Luxembourg Negara-negara Baltik Norway Perancis Poland (Anti-komunis) Romania Thailand Slovakia Ukraine Vietnam Yahudi Yugoslavia Yunani

Garis masa

Permulaan	Afrika Asia Eropah
1939	Poland Perang Olok-Olok Perang Musim Sejuk Atlantik Changsha China
1940	Weserübung Netherlands Belgium Perancis Britain Afrika Utara Afrika Barat Somaliland British Negara-negara Baltik Moldova Indochina Yunani Operasi Kompas
1941	Afrika Timur Yugoslavia Perang Yugoslavia Yunani Kriti Iraq Kesatuan Soviet (Barbarossa) Finland Lithuania Syria dan Lubnan Kiev Iran Leningrad Moscow Sevastopol Pearl Harbor Hong Kong Filipina Changsha Tanah Melayu Borneo (1941–42)
1942	Burma Changsha Laut Karang Gazala Midway Blue Stalingrad Dieppe El Alamein Guadalcanal Torch
1943	Tunisia Kursk Smolensk Kepulauan Solomon Sicily Lower Dnieper Itali Kepulauan Gilbert dan Marshall Changde
1944	Monte Cassino / Shingle Narva Korsun–Cherkassy Tempest Ichi-Go Overlord Neptune Normandy Kepulauan Mariana dan Palau Bagration Ukraine Barat Garis Tannenberg Warsaw Romania Timur Belgrade Paris Garis Gothic Operasi Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Lapland Hungary Leyte Ardennes Filipina (1944–1945) Burma (1944–1945)
1945	Bodenplatte Vistula–Oder Iwo Jima Okinawa Itali (Musim Bunga 1945) Barisan Syrmian Berlin Czechoslovakia Budapest Hunan Barat Penyerahan kalah Jerman Projek Hula Manchuria Manila Borneo Pengeboman Atom Kepulauan Kuril Shumshu Penyerahan kalah Jepun

Aspek

Umum	Air warfare of World War II Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Home front Lend-Lease Projek Manhattan Military awards Military equipment Military production Perompakan oleh pihak Nazi Technology Perang total Strategic bombing Kebuluran Bengal 1943
Selepas perang	Pemindahan orang Jerman Operation Paperclip Operation Keelhaul Pendudukan Jerman Rancangan Morgenthau Perubahan sempadan Jerman Pendudukan Soviet Romania Poland Hungary Negara-Negara Baltik Pendudukan Jepun Perang Indochina Pertama Revolusi Nasional Indonesia Perang Dingin Penyahjajahan Popular culture
Jenayah perang	Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes British war crimes United States war crimes German (Forced labour) / Wehrmacht war crimes Holokus Aftermath Response Prosecution Jenayah perang Itali Jenayah perang Jepun Unit 731 Pendakwaan Jenayah perang Croatia terhadap orang Serb terhadap orang Yahudi Jenayah perang dari orang Serb
Perogolan perang	German military brothels Camp brothels Perogolan semasa pendudukan ke atas Japan "Wanita penghibur" Perogolan di Nanking Perogolan semasa pendudukan ke atas Jerman Perogolan semasa pembebasan Perancis Perogolan semasa pembebasan Poland
Tawanan	Finnish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union German prisoners of war in the Soviet Union German prisoners of war in the United States Italian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners of war in World War II Nazi crimes against Soviet POWs Polish prisoners of war in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners of war in the Soviet Union