Eshmunazar II

Phoenician king of Sidon

𐤀𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤏𐤆𐤓‎DynastyEshmunazar I dynastyReligionCanaanite polytheism

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Eshmunazar II ([æʃmuːn ʔɑːzər] ^ⓘ; Phoenician: 𐤀𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤏𐤆𐤓, ʾšmnʿzr, lit. 'Eshmun helps') was the Phoenician king of Sidon (r. c. 539 – c. 525 BC). He was the grandson of Eshmunazar I, and a vassal king of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. Eshmunazar II succeeded his father Tabnit I who ruled for a short time and died before the birth of his son. Tabnit I was succeeded by his sister-wife Amoashtart who ruled alone until Eshmunazar II's birth, and then acted as his regent until the time he would have reached majority. Eshmunazar II died prematurely at the age of 14. He was succeeded by his cousin Bodashtart.

Eshmunazar II came from a lineage of priests of the goddess Astarte, and his rule saw a strong emphasis on religious activities. He and his mother Amoashtart built temples in various parts of Sidon and its neighboring territories. During his reign, King Cambyses II of Persia rewarded Sidon for its military contributions to his campaign against Egypt by granting Sidon additional territory. Eshmunazar II is primarily known from his sarcophagus, which features two Phoenician inscriptions; it is currently housed in the Louvre Museum.

Etymology

Eshmunazar is the Romanized form of the Phoenician theophoric name 𐤀𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤏𐤆𐤓‎, meaning "Eshmun helps".^[1]^[2] Eshmun was the Phoenician god of healing and renewal of life; he was one of the most important divinities of the Phoenician pantheon and the main male divinity of the city of Sidon.^[3]

The name is also transliterated as: ʾEšmunʿazor,^[4] ʾšmnʿzr,^[5] Achmounazar,^[6] Ashmounazar,^[7] Ashmunazar,^[8] Ashmunezer,^[9] Echmounazar,^[10] Echmounazor,^[11] Eschmoun-ʿEzer,^[12] Eschmunazar,^[13] Eshmnʿzr,^[2] Eshmunazor,^[14] Esmounazar,^[15] Esmunasar,^[16] Esmunazar,^[17] Ešmunʿazor,^[18] Ešmunazar,^[19] Ešmunazor.^[20]

Historical context

Sidon, which was a flourishing and independent Phoenician city-state, came under Mesopotamian occupation in the ninth century BC. The Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II (r. 883 – 859 BC) conquered the Lebanon mountain range and its coastal cities, including Sidon.^[21] In 705 BC, King Luli, who reigned over both Tyre and Sidon,^[22] joined forces with the Egyptians and Judah in an unsuccessful rebellion against Assyrian rule.^[23]^[24] He was forced to flee to Kition, on the neighboring island of Cyprus, upon the arrival of the Assyrian army headed by Sennacherib. Sennacherib placed Ittobaal on the throne of Sidon and imposed an annual tribute.^[a]^[26] Elayi believes that Ittobaal was of royal Sidonian lineage, a family line driven out of power by the reigning Tyrian kings.^[27] When Abdi-Milkutti ascended to Sidon's throne in 680 BC, he also rebelled against the Assyrians. In response, the Assyrian king Esarhaddon captured and beheaded Abdi-Milkutti in 677 BC after a three-year siege; Sidon was stripped of its territory, which was awarded to Baal I, the king of rival Tyre and a loyal vassal to Esarhaddon.^[28]

Sidon returned to its former prosperity while Tyre was besieged for thirteen years (586–573 BC) by the Chaldean king Nebuchadnezzar II.^[29] After the Achaemenid conquest in 529 BC. Phoenicia was divided into four vassal kingdoms: Sidon, Tyre, Byblos and Arwad.^[30] Eshmunazar I, a priest of the Phoenician goddess Astarte, and the founder of his eponymous dynasty, became king around the same time.^[31] During the early Persian period (539–486 BC), Sidon rose to power, becoming Phoenicia's preeminent city.^[32]^[33]^[34] Sidonian kings began an extensive program of mass-scale construction projects attested in the funerary inscription on the sarcophagus of Eshmunazar II and the dedicatory Bodashtart inscriptions found on the foundations of the Temple of Eshmun's monumental podium.^[35]^[36]^[37]

Reign

Chronology and length of reign

Eshmunazar is believed to have reigned in the later half of the sixth century BC, during the Persian Achaemenid Period of Sidon's history, from c. 539 BC until his premature death c. 525 BC.^[38]^[39] The absolute chronology of the kings of Sidon from the dynasty of Eshmunazar I onward has been much discussed in the literature; traditionally placed in the course of the fifth century BC, inscriptions of this dynasty have been dated back to an earlier period on the basis of numismatic, historical and archaeological evidence. An examination of the dates of the reigns of these Sidonian kings has been presented by the French historian Josette Elayi, who shifted away from the use of biblical chronology.^[38] Elayi placed the reigns of the descendants of Eshmunazar I between the middle and the end of the sixth century BC.^[38]^[39] Elayi used all of the documentation available at the time,^[when?] including inscribed Tyrian seals,^[40] and stamps excavated by the Lebanese archaeologist Maurice Chehab in 1972 from Jal el-Bahr, a neighborhood in the north of Tyre.^[41] Elayi also used Phoenician inscriptions discovered by the French archaeologist Maurice Dunand in Sidon in 1965,^[42] and conducted a systematic study of Sidonian coins.^[43]^[44]

Temple building and territorial expansion

The kings of Sidon held priestly roles in addition to military, judicial and diplomatic responsibilities.^[45]^[46] Some locally minted coins display scenes suggesting that the Sidonian kings actively participated in religious ceremonies.^[46] Eshmunazar II descended from a line of priests; his father Tabnit and his grandfather Eshmunazar I were priests of Astarte, in addition to being kings of Sidon, as recorded on Tabnit's sarcophagus inscriptions.^[b] Eshmunazar II's mother was also a priestess of Astarte as illustrated on line 14 of her son's sarcophagus inscriptions.^[48] The construction and restoration of temples and the execution of priestly duties served as promotional tools used by Sidonian monarchs to bolster their political power and magnificence, and to depict them as pious recipients of divine favor and protection.^[46] This royal function was manifested by Eshmunazar II and his mother Queen Amoashtart through the construction of new temples and religious buildings for the Phoenician gods Baal, Astarte, and Eshmun in a number of Sidon's neighborhoods and its adjoining territory.^[c]^[46]^[49]

In recognition of Sidon's naval warfare contributions, the Achaemenids awarded Eshmunazar II the territories of Dor, Joppa, and the Plain of Sharon.^[d]^[e]^[51]

Succession and death

Phoenician kingship was lifelong and hereditary.^[14] The responsibilities and power of the position were passed down to the king's child or another member of their family when they died. The royal ancestry and lineage of Sidonian kings was documented up to the second- or third-degree ancestor, as evidenced by lines 13 and 14 of Eshmunazar II's sarcophagus inscription.^[52] Queen mothers held political power and exercised in the form of association with political acts and co-regency.^[53] Eshmunazar II's father, Tabnit I, ruled for a short time and died before the birth of his son; he was succeeded by his sister-wife Amoashtart, who assumed the role of regent during the interregnum. Eshmunazar II died aged 14 during the reign of his overlord, Cambyses II of Achaemenid Persia.^[54]^[55] After his death, Eshmunazar II was succeeded by his cousin Bodashtart.^[34]

Eshmunazar II's sarcophagus

1892 picture of the sarcophagus lid

1892 picture of the sarcophagus with the trough inscription visible under the lid

The sarcophagus of Eshmunazar II is one of the only three Ancient Egyptian sarcophagi found outside Egypt; the other two belonged to Eshmunazar's parents, Tabnit and Amoashtart.^[56]^[57] It was likely carved in Egypt from local amphibolite for a member of the Egyptian elite, and captured as booty by the Sidonians during their participation in Cambyses II's conquest of Egypt in 525 BC.^[58]^[59]^[60] The sarcophagus has two sets of Phoenician inscriptions, one on its lid and a partial copy of it on the sarcophagus trough, around the curvature of the head.^[61]^[62]^[63] The sarcophagus was discovered on 19 January 1855,^[64] as treasure-hunters were digging in the grounds of an ancient cemetery in the plains south of the city of Sidon. It was found outside a hollowed-out rocky mound locally known as Magharet Abloun ('The Cavern of Apollo'), a part of a large complex of Achaemenid era necropoli.^[61]^[65] The discovery is attributed to Alphonse Durighello, an agent of the French consulate in Sidon, who informed and sold the sarcophagus to Aimé Péretié, an amateur archaeologist and the chancellor of the French consulate in Beirut.^[66]^[67] The sarcophagus was first described,^[61] and acquired by Honoré Théodoric d'Albert de Luynes, a French aristocrat who donated it to the French state.^[68] The sarcophagus of King Eshmunazar II is housed in the Louvre's Near Eastern antiquities section in room 311 of the Pavillon Sully. It was given the museum identification number AO 4806.^[69]

The inscriptions of the sarcophagus of Eshmunazar are written in the Phoenician language, in the Phoenician script. They identify the king buried inside, tell of his lineage and temple construction feats and warn against disturbing him in his repose.^[37]^[70] The inscriptions also state that the "Lord of Kings" (the Achaemenid King of Kings, probably Cambyses II)^[71] granted the Sidonian king "Dor and Joppa, the mighty lands of Dagon, which are in the Plain of Sharon" in recognition of his deeds.^[37] The deeds in question probably relate to the contribution of Eshmunazar to the Egyptian campaign of Cambyses II.^[71] Copies of the inscriptions were sent to scholars across the world, and well-known scholars of the time,^[72] including German orientalists Heinrich Ewald and Emil Rödiger,^[73]^[74] as well as the French orientalist Salomon Munk, published translations of them.^[75]

Genealogy

Eshmunazar II was a descendant of Eshmunazar I's dynasty. Eshmunazar I's son Tabnit succeeded him. Tabnit had a child, Eshmunazar II, with his sister Amoashtart. Tabnit died before the birth of Eshmunazar II, and Amoashtart ruled in the interlude until the birth of her son, then was co-regent until he reached adulthood.^[34]^[76]

Eshmunazar I dynasty

Tabnit I

Eshmunazar II

Notes

^ I placed Tu-Baʾlu on his royal throne over them and imposed upon him tribute (and) payment (in recognition) of my overlordship (to be delivered) yearly (and) without interruption.^[25]
^ I, Tabnit, priest of Astarte, king of Sidon, the son of Eshmunazar, priest of Astarte, king of Sidon, am lying in this sarcophagus. Whoever you are, any man that might find this sarcophagus, do not, do not open it and do not disturb me, for no silver is gathered with me, no gold is gathered with me, nor anything of value whatsoever, only I am lying in this sarcophagus. do not, do not open it and do not disturb me, for this thing is an abomination to Astarte. And if you do indeed open it and do indeed disturb me, may you not have any seed among the living under the sun, nor a resting-place with the Rephaites.^[47]
^ See lines 15–18 of the Eshmunazar II sarchophagus inscription.
^ See lines 18–20 of the Eshmunazar II sarchophagus inscription.
^ The territories of the Phoenician cities could be discontiguous: thus, the lands and the cities of Dor and Joppa belonging to the Sidonians were separated from Sidon by the city of Tyre.^[50]

References

Citations

^ Hitti 1967, p. 135.
^ ^a ^b Jean 1947, p. 267.
^ Jayne 2003, pp. 136–140.
^ Burlingame 2018.
^ Briquel Chatonnet, Daccache & Hawley 2015, p. 237.
^ Delattre 1890, p. 17.
^ Mariette 1856, p. 9.
^ Jessup 1881, p. 46.
^ Turner 1860, p. 48.
^ Clermont-Ganneau 1880, p. 93.
^ Bordreuil 2002.
^ Munk 1856.
^ Hitzig 1855.
^ ^a ^b Elayi 1997, p. 68.
^ Perrot & Chipiez 1885, p. 168.
^ Levy 1864, p. 227.
^ de Luynes 1856, p. 55.
^ Elayi 2004, p. 9.
^ Eiselen 1907, p. 73.
^ King 1997, p. 189.
^ Bryce 2009, p. 651.
^ Elayi 2018b, pp. 55–58, 72.
^ Netanyahu 1964, pp. 243–244.
^ Yates 1942, p. 109.
^ Grayson & Novotny 2012.
^ Elayi 2018b, p. 58.
^ Elayi 2018a, p. 165.
^ Bromiley 1979, pp. 501, 933–934.
^ Aubet 2001, pp. 58–60.
^ Boardman et al. 2000, p. 156.
^ Zamora 2016, p. 253.
^ Katzenstein 1979, p. 24.
^ Zamora 2016, pp. 253–254.
^ ^a ^b ^c Elayi 2006, p. 5.
^ Zamora 2016, pp. 255–257.
^ Elayi 2006, p. 7.
^ ^a ^b ^c Pritchard & Fleming 2011, pp. 311–312.
^ ^a ^b ^c Elayi 2006, p. 22.
^ ^a ^b Amadasi Guzzo 2012, p. 6.
^ Elayi 2006, p. 2.
^ Kaoukabani 2005, p. 3; Chéhab 1983, p. 171; Greenfield 1985, pp. 129–134.
^ Dunand 1965, pp. 105–109.
^ Elayi 2006.
^ Elayi & Elayi 2004.
^ Elayi 1997, p. 69.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Elayi & Sapin 1998, p. 153.
^ Jidéjian & Dunand 2006, p. 25.
^ Haelewyck 2012, pp. 80–81.
^ Amadasi Guzzo 2012.
^ Elayi 1997, p. 66.
^ Briant 2002, p. 490.
^ Elayi 1997, pp. 68–69.
^ Elayi 1997, p. 70.
^ Kessler 2020.
^ Kelly 1987, p. 268.
^ Dussaud, Deschamps & Seyrig 1931, Plaque 29.
^ Kelly 1987, pp. 48–49.
^ Elayi 2006, p. 6.
^ Versluys 2011, pp. 7–14.
^ Buhl 1983, p. 201.
^ ^a ^b ^c de Luynes 1856, p. 1.
^ Turner 1860, pp. 48, 51–52.
^ Gibson 1982, p. 105.
^ United States Magazine of Science, Art, Manufactures, Agriculture, Commerce and Trade 1856, pp. 379–380.
^ Jidéjian 2000, pp. 17–18.
^ Klat 2002, p. 102.
^ Tahan 2017, pp. 29–30.
^ King 1887, p. 135.
^ Caubet & Prévotat 2013.
^ Crawford 1992, pp. 180–181.
^ ^a ^b Kelly 1987, pp. 46–47.
^ Turner 1860, pp. 48–50.
^ Ewald 1856, pp. 70–71.
^ Rödiger 1855, pp. 648–658.
^ Munk 1856, pp. 13–16.
^ Nabulsi 2017, pp. 307, 310.

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Rödiger, Emil (1855). "Bemerkungen über die phönikische Inschrift eines am 19. Januar 1855 nahe bei Sidon gefundenen Königs-Sarkophag's" [Remarks on the Phoenician inscription of a king's sarcophagus found near Sidon on 19 January 1855]. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft (in German). 9 (3/4): 647–659. ISSN 0341-0137. JSTOR 43359455. Archived from the original on 23 November 2022 – via JSTOR.
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Preceded by

Tabnit I

King of Sidon
c. 539–525 BC

Succeeded by

Bodashtart

Rulers in the Achaemenid Empire

Family tree - Achaemenid Kingdom

Kings of Kings
of the Achaemenid Empire

Satraps of Lydia

Satraps of Hellespontine Phrygia

Satraps of Cappadocia

Greek Governors of Asia Minor cities

Dynasts of Lycia

Kheziga
Kybernis
Kuprlli
Harpagus
Teththiweibi
Kheriga
Kherei
Arbinas
Artembares
Artumpara
Mithrapata
Perikle

Dynasts of Caria

Kings of Macedonia

Kings of Tyre

Mattan IV
Boulomenus
Abdemon
Evagoras
Azemilcus

Kings of Sidon

Satraps of Armenia

Satraps of Egypt

Satraps of Bactria

Hystaspes
Dadarsi
Masistes
Bessus

Satraps of Media

Satraps of Cilicia

Syennesis
Camisares
Mazaeus
Arsames

Other known satraps

In most territories, Achaemenid rulers were succeeded by Hellenistic satraps and Hellenistic rulers from around 330 BC

Rulers of the Ancient Near East

Territories/ dates ^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]	Egypt		Canaan	Ebla	Mari	Kish/ Assur	Akshak/ Akkad	Uruk	Adab	Umma	Lagash	Ur	Elam
4000–3200 BCE	Naqada I Naqada II		Egypt-Mesopotamia relations	Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE)									Susa I
4000–3200 BCE	Naqada I Naqada II			Uruk period (4000–3100 BCE) (Anu Ziggurat, 4000 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests")									Susa II (Uruk influence or control)
3200–3100 BCE	Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings:
3200–3100 BCE	Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes	Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash
3100–2900 BCE	Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Palette Narmer Menes Neithhotep^♀ (regent) Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith^♀ (regent) Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird		Canaanites	Jemdet Nasr period (3100–2900 BCE)									Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100–2700 BCE)
2900 BCE	Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy			Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE)
2900 BCE				First Eblaite Kingdom	First kingdom of Mari	Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum
2800 BCE						Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna		Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher
2800 BCE								Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta")
2700 BCE				Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE)
						Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum		Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman
						Enmebaragesi ("made the land of Elam submit")^[6]
						Aga of Kish		Gilgamesh					Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations
2600 BCE	Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser (First Egyptian pyramids) Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni			Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE)
				Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu		Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim		Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum			Lagash En-hegal Lugal- shaengur	Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug
						Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim		Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun	Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu		Lagash En-hegal Lugal- shaengur
2575 BCE	Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis				Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk
2500 BCE			Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE)		Second kingdom of Mari Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi	Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba^♀	Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu	Uruk II dynasty Ensha- kushanna	Mug-si	Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku	Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal	A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu	Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur
2450 BCE	Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas			Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik						Ush Enakalle		A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu	Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur
2450 BCE				Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik						Ush Enakalle		Elamite invasions (3 kings)^[6]	Shushun- tarana Napilhush
2425 BCE				Kun-Damu		Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam)
2400 BCE				Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu		Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa	Urur	Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi	E-iginimpa'e Meskigal	Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun)	Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi	Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II	Kiku-siwe-tempti
2380 BCE	Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah			Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world"
2370 BCE				Isar-Damu	Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari	Invasion by Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter^[6]				Ukush	Lugalanda Urukagina		Luh-ishan
2350 BCE				Isar-Damu	Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari		Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin	Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer)					Luh-ishan
2340 BCE					Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE)
2340 BCE				Akkadian Empire Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu									Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani
2250 BCE				Naram-Sin							Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians)
2200 BCE	First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare			Second Eblaite Kingdom	Third kingdom of Mari (Shakkanakku dynasty) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians)	Shar-Kali-Sharri					Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians)
2200 BCE						Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul		Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir			Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku		Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak
2150 BCE	Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut				Ur III period (2150–2000 BCE)
					Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin	Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um		Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu		Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians)	Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani
						Tirigan					Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani
2125 BCE	Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare					Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal
2100 BCE				(Vassals of UR III)	Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar (Vassals of Ur III)^[7]	Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin
2025-1763 BCE				Amorite invasions							Ibbi-Sin	Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty)
	Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV
				Third Eblaite Kingdom (Amorites) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma	(Amorite Shakkanakkus) Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (...) Lim Dynasty of Mari (Amorites) Yaggid-Lim Yahdun-Lim Yasmah-Adad Zimri-Lim (Queen Shibtu)	Old Assyria Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II	Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu						Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak
	Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu^♀
1800–1595 BCE	Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt		Abraham (Biblical) Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon	Yamhad (Yamhad dynasty) (Amorites)	Old Assyria (Shamshi-Adad dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Adaside dynasty 1700–722 BCE) Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II		First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballit Sabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers				Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar ^mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil
1800–1595 BCE	Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty	Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi		Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar
1531–1155 BCE	Tutankhamun New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I			Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar			Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi						Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha
	Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut^♀ Thutmose III
	Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten^♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb			Hittite Empire Ugarit
	Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret^♀			Hittite Empire Ugarit			Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte
1155–1025 BCE	Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II		Phoenicia Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon	Syro-Hittite states	Middle Assyria Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II		Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur						Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE)
1025–934 BCE							Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli						Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE)
911–745 BCE	Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef		Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah		Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat^♀ (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V		Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri						Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III
745–609 BCE	Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt Taharqa ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun		Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser^† Shalmaneser^† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon^† Sennacherib^† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi^† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon^† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II
745–609 BCE	Assyrian conquest of Egypt												Assyrian conquest of Elam
626–539 BCE	Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III		Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus										Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madyes Cyaxares Astyages
539–331 BCE	Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt)		Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon	Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III
	Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt
	Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt
331–141 BCE	Argead dynasty and Ptolemaic Egypt Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II^♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetis^♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator^♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra^♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter^♀ Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III^♀ Ptolemy IX Lathyros Cleopatra IV^♀ Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III^♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V^♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena^♀ Berenice IV Epiphanea^♀ Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator^♀ Ptolemy XV Caesarion Arsinoe IV^♀		Hellenistic Period Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon Argead dynasty: Alexander III Philip III Alexander IV Antigonid dynasty: Antigonus I Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes
141–30 BCE			Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra^♀ Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias	Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus	Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I
30 BCE–116 CE	Roman Empire
30 BCE–116 CE	(Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt		Judea	Syria
116–117 CE			Judea		Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan			Parthamaspates of Parthia
117–224 CE			Syria Palaestina		Province of Mesopotamia	Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV
224–270 CE			Syria Palaestina		Province of Mesopotamia	Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint. Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm
270–273 CE	Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia^♀ Antiochus
273–395 CE	Roman Empire
273–395 CE	Province of Egypt		Syria Palaestina	Syria	Province of Mesopotamia
395–618 CE	Byzantine Empire
395–618 CE	Byzantine Egypt		Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda	Byzantine Syria	Byzantine Mesopotamia
618–628 CE	(Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz		Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II
628–641 CE	Byzantine Empire					Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran^♀ Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht^♀ Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh
628–641 CE	Byzantine Egypt		Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda	Byzantine Syria	Byzantine Mesopotamia
639–651 CE	Muslim conquest of Egypt		Muslim conquest of the Levant		Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia
Chronology of the Neolithic period							Rulers of Ancient Central Asia
^ Rulers with names in italics are considered fictional. ^ Hallo, W.; Simpson, W. (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ ^a ^b ^c Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4.